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Ethics
Biological Soil Crusts
| Dogs in the Backcountry?
| Rants
Our Beloved Trails:
Trail Problems |
Trail Design |
Trail Maintenance |
Trail Crews and Leaders
Biological
Soil Crusts
by
Will Rietveld
Vegetation cover is
generally sparse in more arid regions, and the open spaces are usually
covered with soil crusts. Such is the case in Southeastern Utah where we often hike in the cooler
months. These biological soil crusts (cryptobiotic soil) serve important
ecological functions and are very fragile, so it is important that we know
something about them so we can minimize our impacts on them.
Biological soil crusts
are made up of a combination of algae, mosses, and lichens that bind soil
particles together. They give the soil surface a rough texture that looks
like frost structures. These crusts are living soil! In these arid
regions, soil crusts are very important to resist wind and water erosion,
increase water infiltration and retention, and provide nutrients for
higher plants (like trees and shrubs). The algae component actually
converts nitrogen from the atmosphere into nitrate, which is used by
higher plants.
Biological crusts are
very fragile and are easily destroyed from compaction by livestock,
hikers, dogs, bikes, and vehicles. For example, if you walk across a patch
of soil crust, it will take about 5-10 years for your tracks to disappear.
However, this is only a visual recovery; it can take another 50 years or
more for the moss and lichen components to fully recover.
Tracks in continuous
strips, such as those produced by a group of hikers, bicycles, or vehicles are particularly damaging. Especially on slopes, these strips
provide a channel for wind and water erosion to enlarge the strip into a
gully.
So what can we do to
avoid damage to the crust? Stay on the trail. Do not walk off the trail,
even a few feet, to pass someone if it means walking on the crust. When
the group takes a rest break, choose a spot that is mostly rock or a
drainage crossing where there is no crust. When nature calls, leave the trail
in a dry wash or on rock where there is no crust. Dogs
don’t understand that biological soil crusts are easily damaged, so
it’s the owner’s responsibility to either leave his/her dog at home or
use a leash to keep the dog on the trail.
When
hiking off-trail, use washes as much as possible as travel routes. Hike on
durable surfaces like rock, loose sand, vegetation and debris, and duff
next to trees. Avoid the crypto!
In
National Parks such as Canyonlands, one of the unique features of the area
that contributes to its beauty is large areas of undisturbed biological
soil crust. Perhaps a good way to enjoy hiking through the area is to
think of it as a huge outdoor museum, where the trail is a thin thread of
disturbed ground that allows you to walk through the area and enjoy the
natural beauty. And like a museum, it is important that the very features
that people have come to see and enjoy are preserved for other people to
see and enjoy. Top
Dogs in the
Backcountry?
by
Will Rietveld
Have you
ever been on a day hike or a backpacking trip with a fun, well-mannered
dog? It can be a very rewarding experience for both the dog and its human
companions. Many dog owners find that hiking with their dogs not only
fulfills their own need for exercise, recreation, and rejuvenation but
also fulfills their dog’s need for exercise and play as well. Recreating
with your dog is also an excellent way to bond.
However, not everyone
loves your dog as much as you do. Aggressive behavior towards other
visitors, chasing wildlife, and dog waste are just a few impacts that can
easily be reduced. By doing a little research prior to any outing, you can
plan an adventure that will not only help you and your dog have more fun,
but will also help keep your dog’s impact to a minimum. Some things to
remember when having fun in the outdoors with your dog:
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Know when your dog is welcome.
Others may not
appreciate your dog’s company so if you’re not sure, just ask. It is
best not to let your dog approach other people unless he’s invited.
Always check on local regulations before hitting the trail. In many
wilderness areas, dogs must be on a leash or under voice control. In
national parks, dogs are not allowed on trails and must be on a leash at
all times. Some areas don’t allow dogs at all. K
Keeping your dog under control keeps people, other dogs, wildlife,
and livestock safe.
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Consider the Environmental Ethics. People hike in
wilderness areas to connect with the land. They aren’t there for the
social experience—they’re there to get away from other people,
traffic, and noise. Dogs are an intrusion. They bark, run off-leash, and
leave poop on the trail. Think beyond yourself, consider the impacts your
dog will have on other peoples’ wilderness experience.
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Don’t let your dog be a gadabout. When hiking with
a group, remember that it is your dog, not the group’s dog. When your
dog passes other people on a narrow trail it can be dangerous to your
companions and your dog. Some people are offended by a dog surprising them
from behind, crowding them on the trail, or bumping them as it passes.
Some people do not like to be licked by a dog or would prefer not to pet
your dog. It is very important to constrain your dog at snack time and
lunchtime because many people prefer to enjoy their break without a canine
beggar. A good idea is to bring snacks for your dog so he can enjoy his
treat as well.
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Protect wildlife from your dog’s potential harmful
impacts. Keep track of your dog while recreating and always have a
leash on hand for emergencies. By keeping your dog in sight and under
voice control, you will lessen the chance for harm to your dog from other
dogs or wildlife. Dogs should never chase or approach wildlife. Chased or
harassed wildlife change their feeding patterns, exert more energy
(fleeing from a dog) and in many cases are more susceptible to
displacement, poor health, and even death.
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Dispose of dog waste properly.
Dog poop stinks! Dog
waste increases the nitrogen in the soil, giving an advantage to weeds
over native plants in many areas. Dog waste should be properly disposed
of, just like human waste. In most cases, the preferred option is to pack
the waste out. It’s very easy to pack out dog waste, and bags re even
provided at some trailheads. However, in the backcountry, a 6-8 inch deep
cathole is usually best for dog waste.
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Consider the following before venturing out with your
dog:
Are dogs allowed in the area where you plan to go?
Do you need a permit of any kind?
What is the weather forecast?
Is the trail/terrain appropriate for your dog?
Do you have water and food for your dog?
Do you have first aid supplies for your dog?
Taking a dog along on a group outing requires some special considerations
to respect the rights of others. Other people may not enjoy the company of
your dog as much as you do, and they may be offended by your dog’s
behavior toward other people, wildlife, and the environment. By being
in-the-know and prepared, you and your dog can have more fun in the
outdoors and minimize both of your recreational impacts.
Top
Trail
Problems
by
Will Rietveld
Will our trails
survive the 21st century? As it stands now, the answer is
uncertain. Public demand for trails continues to increase while funds for
trails, especially at the federal level, are shrinking. A simple fact is
that the Forest Service received more funding for trail maintenance in the
1970’s than it does today. Our trails are deteriorating, and many people
are unaware of the underlying problems.
The whole concept of public trails and how they are managed is changing.
To get needed maintenance done, land management agencies are relying more
on volunteers, trail advocacy groups (like Trails 2000), and alternative
labor and funding sources. Volunteer labor is fast becoming the main force
in the effort to protect our trail resources. For example, the Appalachian
Trail is almost totally maintained by organized volunteer groups who raise
money and do the work.
If you like to hike, bike, or ride and enjoy well-maintained trails, think
about becoming a trail maintenance volunteer. Think about adopting a
favorite trail. Then perform regular maintenance on that trail as part of
your commitment to “give back” to the trail system that makes your
outings possible.
Committing to do trail maintenance is the easy part; getting the job done requires work. Think of it as “sweat
equity,” an investment of our time and effort to improve our trails, and
increase our awareness of trail stewardship and natural resource issues.
It can be a very rewarding experience.
Trail Problems
Most trail users do not have much awareness of trail design and
maintenance concepts, but almost anyone can list the characteristics of a
“bad” trail:
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Deep Trenching—The
trail is sunken so much that hikers feel like they are walking in a trench
and equestrians drag their spurs.
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Widening—The trail has
widened from a single-track to an unsightly “freeway”, or multiple
parallel tracks trenched to different degrees.
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Short Cuts—By hiking
the shortest distance between two points—a straight line—users create
a web of trails, most of which are steep and erosive.
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Tripping Hazards—Regular
use and erosion ultimately expose tree roots and rocks.
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Steepness—If a trail
is too steep over a long distance, one of two things will happen: either
people won’t use it, or users will not enjoy their hike.
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Impacts to Natural and
Cultural Resources—Erosive trails and multiple trails compound the
impact that trails have on rare plants and on archaeological sites. They
also encourage the establishment of invasive weeds.
Causes
Erosive
trails and multiple trails compound the impact that trails have on rare
plants and on archaeological sites. All of these problems can be tied to
one or more of the following causes.
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Water—Water
is the foremost cause of trail problems. The movement of water causes
erosion and deep trenches. It also exposes tripping hazards. The
problem is exacerbated by trail steepness. Basically
hikes/bikers/riders loosen the soil in the trail, then a hard rain
washes it away. This scenario happens over and over until the trail
becomes a rocky trench.
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Poor Initial Trail Design—The
true origin of many of our trails is unknown, but they were probably
initiated by game and animals and Native Americans, and later enhanced
by white settlers. These critters and people were more concerned with
getting to where they wanted to go than they were about trail design.
Many of the trails we inherited are simply too steep and suffer the
consequences of water erosion.
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Inadequate Maintenance—There
has always been a problem with too many miles of trails to maintain
and inadequate resources to get the job done. Consequently the
problems have just gotten worse.
Unfortunately,
many of our trails suffer from the causes listed above. These trails
deteriorate quickly, and are difficult to maintain or restore. A poorly
designed trail will always be less pleasant to hike or ride. With our help
and efforts, trails can survive the 21st century. Protecting
our trail resources is also one of the best ways to better understand
natural resource stewardship and sustainability.
Top
Trail Design
by
Will Rietveld
Many of our
trails are in poor condition, and that is not likely to change any time
soon. The underlying problems are: (1) poor initial trail design, (2)
erosion, and (3) inadequate maintenance. The outlook for the 21st
century is for increased demand for quality trails by all types of users
coupled with continued tight budgets to federal agencies for trail
maintenance. The solution is off-budget trail projects accomplished by
volunteer organizations.
Elements of a Well-Designed
Trail
I will focus on the important
elements of trail design from a maintenance perspective. Other desired
elements not discussed would include scenic views, interesting trailside
features, good resting spots, avoiding dropoffs, avoiding wet areas,
locating trails on south facing hillsides where they dry out faster, etc.
Having some knowledge of trail design helps us to understand what is
desired or ideal when looking at a trail. It also helps us to understand
why some trails, or trail segments, defy maintenance. A well-designed
trail will be easier to maintain, will deteriorate more slowly, and will
be more pleasant to use. On the other hand, a poorly designed trail is
difficult to maintain and deteriorates quickly. Once it degrades beyond a
certain point, there’s not much that can be done to restore it. In
addition, a poorly designed trail will always be less pleasant to hike or
ride.
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Gradient—Generally, the linear gradient of a trail should
be in the 5 to 12% range (an elevation gain of 1 foot in 10 horizontal
feet is a 10% gradient). Specific conditions may warrant a greater or
lesser gradient. In highly erosive (e.g., sandy) soils, a 5% gradient may
be appropriate. More durable soils can allow gradients up to 20%. However,
user satisfaction is an important factor, and trails less than 10% are
more comfortable to hike or ride.
-
Outslope—A well-designed trail should have a 6 to 10%
cross-slope to get the water off the trail as quickly as possible.
Constructing an effective trail in a flat area such as a meadow or a bog
is difficult because it is hard to get outslope so the water drains away
from the trail.
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Relationship to Existing Contours—In map jargon, a contour
is a line of points that are at the same elevation. If you walk on the
contour, you are walking at a level (0%) gradient. If you walk
perpendicular to a contour, you are walking either straight uphill or
straight downhill. On gentle slopes, a trail can stay within a gradient of
5 to 12% and travel straight uphill (perpendicular to the contours), but
that is a poor route because water will run down the middle of the trail
and cause erosion. A well-designed trail is laid out to traverse a
hillside at an angle to the contours. This provides a way to get water off
the trail by letting it run off the lower side of the trail, rather than
run down the trail.
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Switchbacks—A “switchback” is any place where the
alignment of a trail traverses a slope in one direction and then abruptly
“switches back” and traverses in the opposite direction. Switchbacks
are often the only solution in rough and steep terrain, so we have to live
with them. The problem is that they present an irresistible temptation for
people to shortcut the trail and cause erosion. Switchbacks can also be
difficult to drain.
Our goal in trail maintenance is to utilize practices that will either
maintain the quality of a properly designed trail or help correct the
problems inherent in poorly designed trails. A little knowledge goes a
long way when it comes to trail design and maintenance.
Top
Trail Maintenance
by
Will Rietveld
The
first step of trail maintenance is to inspect the trail with a Forest
Service resource manager to identify what is needed, mark the locations
where work needs to be done, and write up a work list keyed to the marked
locations. When inspecting the trail, the key question to ask is, “is
there adequate drainage”? The most important factor is getting water off
the trail as quickly and efficiently as possible. The following elements
are the primary “tools” used in the maintenance of trails. The first
three are the most important, but each has its own special application and
purpose.
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Maintaining
the Outslope—Normal trail use will develop a trench and build up
a berm along the outside (downhill) edge of the trail. If allowed to
continue, the berm will grow and prevent water from flowing off the
trail. Eventually the trail will become a gully that is unusable and
unredeemable. The outslope is maintained by simply pulling the berm
back into the trail tread, filling in the trench. If the berm is too
large and overgrown with vegetation for the outslope to be restored,
then other maintenance approaches must be used.
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Installing
Water Bars—Water bars divert water off a trail at controlled
points along the trail. They should be incorporated in the original
design and construction of the trail, but can be added at any time as
a maintenance measure. Done well, a series of water bars can
effectively eliminate erosion and stabilize a trail for years.
Permanent water bars can be made from rock or logs obtained on-site or
from pressure treated logs brought in. The procedures to properly
install a water bar are:
-
Set
the water bar at a 30 degree angle across the trail. Looking
down the trail, a water bar set 30 degrees to the downhill side
works best. A water bar set perpendicular (90 degrees) across the
trail will not effectively divert the water off. A water bar set
60 degrees across the trail can be awkward to hike or ride over.
-
Use
rocks or logs for water bars that are large enough so they
will not be kicked out of place by horses. The rocks should
overlap like shingles on a roof to prevent water from flowing
between the rocks.
-
Align
the top of the water bar slightly above the trail tread to
minimize tripping hazards.
-
Extend
the water bar so water is carried completely off the trail to
a steep side slope. Otherwise, the water flow will bypass the
water bar and erosion will occur.
-
Provide
rock at the downslope end of the water bar to dissipate the
energy of the flowing water, thereby minimizing erosion.
-
Maintaining
Water Bars—Water bars need regular maintenance. The excess soil
and debris that builds up on the downslope end of the water bar needs
to be completely dug out to assure that water flows off the trail.
This soil can be used to replace soil on the sides of the water bar if
it has been worn away.
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Maintaining
Drainage Dips—A drainage dip is a change in gradient (a
“dip” in the trail) that dissipates and diverts water flow. It’s
like a built-in water bar. Like a water bar, it only remains an
effective means of erosion prevention as long as regular maintenance
keeps it unplugged.
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Pruning—Pruning
vegetation is an essential and regular part of trail maintenance.
Multi-use trails should have a 10’ vertical and 8’ horizontal
clearance. Our goal is to maintain a trail’s appearance as natural
as possible. Prune branches back to the main stem, rather than leaving
a stub that can be a hazard. Drag branches away from the trail so they
are out of sight.
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Signing—Adequate
signing keeps trail users on the trail. Uncertainty about which trail
is which will lead to new trails being created by users, which will
need to be abolished later.
This
article provides a “primer” on what is involved in trail maintenance.
It’s an inexact science with many variables. Much depends on the
location of the trail, the soil, the climate, and the types of uses. It
requires some background and training so volunteers can do the job right,
and not waste their time or make the situation worse. This will help
de-mystify what trail maintenance is all about and make all of us
“experts.” The important thing is to enjoy the experience of working
together in the outdoors and feeling the sense of accomplishment and
fulfillment that comes from public service.
Top
Trail Crews and Leaders
by
Will Rietveld
This
article addresses how to organize and carry out trail work. A
common approach is to train Crew Leaders and then have the Crew Leaders
train and lead small groups of 4-6 volunteers on the trail. This approach
is more efficient so that everyone who participates doesn’t have to go
through Crew Leader training. For this to succeed we need Crew Leader
volunteers.
For
Crew Leaders, here are the skills you will learn from the Crew Leader
Training provided by the Forest Service:
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Leadership—You
will learn how to organize a small crew of volunteers to accomplish a
section of the project. The objective is to work together, be safe,
and have fun.
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Safety—You
will be able to explain the proper use of tools, identify safety
concerns related to the project, and provide the appropriate response
in case of an injury.
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Technical
Skills—You will understand the dynamics of water erosion and the
need for water drainage, and be able to explain the environmental
effects of proper (and improper) trail work. You will be able to
demonstrate and lead the crew to apply proper trail maintenance
practices and techniques.
For
Volunteers, here is what you should expect when you show up to work on
your trail project:
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Preparations—Everyone
in the crew will introduce himself/herself, the Crew Leader will check
to make sure everyone is prepared with water, lunch, gloves,
appropriate day hiking gear, and lotions (sun and bug).
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Project
Discussion—The Crew Leader will describe the project(s) for the
crew and the goals. This will include the location(s) of the project(s)
and the length of the hike to get there.
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Safety and Health Discussion—The Crew Leader will lead
a group discussion of the safety hazards of the work to be done. If
anyone has a medical condition it should be disclosed to the group (or
to the Crew Leader in private).
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Tool
Use and Safety—The Crew Leader will explain how to carry, use,
and store tools safely, so you don’t injure yourself or someone
else.
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Hike
to Project Location—The crew will hike at a pace that everyone
can handle.
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Work
Site Organization—Before work begins, the Crew Leader will
explain the work to be done and will interact with volunteers to
decide who does what.
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Get
to Work—Everyone should find a comfortable working pace, work
together and help each other. Take frequent water breaks, and remember
to have fun! The Crew Leader will monitor work progress and make
helpful suggestions. Yes, he/she does some work too!
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Savor
Your Accomplishments—When you are finished and arrive back at
the trailhead, praise yourself and each other for a job well done!
Being
a trail Crew Leader or volunteer is another way of enjoying the
backcountry with your friends and having fun. It is also a good way to
increase your understanding of public lands stewardship, how environmental
impacts occur, and how they can be properly managed. Volunteering and
working with your friends to accomplish a common goal is a very satisfying
experience. You can take pride in what has been accomplished for the
environment and the community.
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